Project Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Venture Management - Assignment Example Division directors will straightforwardly answer to the venture chief. Subsequently, with diminished chain of importance the undertaking will proficiently without any deferrals and expanded expense because of additional detailing levels (Ingason and Jã ³nasson, 59-69). The venture administrator coordinates all the exercises and errand for the general task, going about as data main issue for the subcontractors. In the wake of getting all the data of the project’s heading and errands associate chief partitioned the undertaking and obligations among the useful administrators. Collaborator venture administrator fills in as director of controlling advisory group and communicates with both practical supervisors and temporary workers. The useful directors get the rules and assignment duties from collaborator supervisor. In real the job of agreement official is to fill in as a main issue for all the expense and data of the agreement. The military kind trough has some unique aptitudes that separate its character from different troughs. The military administrator centers around these components: demand clear correspondence and arrangement, produce high performing groups, loose in constantly changing situations and recruit the substitution and choices. In the event that the progression adjusted military sort of approach, at that point it would support the fitness of coordinated effort among the representatives, it would give progressively viable and proficient tem work results and it would make the demeanor of administrators movable in the evolving condition (Forbes). The division of work among numerous specialists expands the proficiency and exactness of dynamic. Furthermore, with the contribution of two higher troughs makes the assessment and observing exercises better in results (Atkinson, 337-342). This progressive system is hard to actualize in any industry in view of its confinements with respect to the assignment of specialists and obligations among the workers and

Modern Business in Comparative Perspective Advantage

Question: Talk about anout the Modern Business in Comparative Perspective Advantage. Answer: Presentation: Global undertakings are characterized as a corporate association that possesses and controls the creation of merchandise and enterprises in more than one nation, other than their nations of origin. They are additionally called the stateless business ventures since they can't work in one country. Global undertakings increment consistently this is as indicated by the report introduced by the World Trade Organization just as other association that work under the wards of WTO. The expanding reception of Multinational ventures is because of the dynamic worldwide economy that keeps own changing unfailingly. The expanding unmistakable quality of worldwide undertakings in the worldwide economy doesn't show the declining significance of national wellsprings of intensity, this is on the grounds that it gives each business part and each partner assumes its job in directing improvement ideas. The worldwide endeavors are searching for nations that can offer less expensive assets; they likewise search for countries that have low duty rates just as having less guideline contrasted with their nations of origin. Michael Porters clarifies compactly about every angle that identifies with the national bunches and geological area of a business or a nation, this is comparable to the ideas of globalization and worldwide capital. Michael Porters present its discoveries that relate with the upper hands of the country comparable to the worldwide business tasks (Porter, 1990) In the 21st century, globalization has been the subject of the day in each gathering where each country is discussing how globalization has profited topic. Created countries are seen to be the countries that are for the most part advancing the thoughts of globalization while they search for better and less expensive assets to build their turn of events. Today, there is no country, which can detach itself from globalization and its effect. As indicated by Thomas. L. Friedman, 2006, the straightening of the present world depends on the globalized business exercises, redistributing of items and administrations, gracefully fastening just as the political powers that influence nations worldwide turn of events. Globalization has taken an a dependable balance to decrease the neediness rates in numerous nations, for example, China and different pieces of Asia, contrasted and different zones, for example, sub-Saharan where destitution rates have stayed to be stale (Friedman, 2006). The thoughts of facilitated commerce, free enterprise, and majority rules system to different countries are accepted to have been produced through the globalization setting. The present proof of globalization is the impression of the created nations, supporters to globalization see U. S organizations working in different countries which are additionally evolved like China. Unhindered commerce has additionally been see as the a dependable balance of globalization. As of now South Korea, NAFTA have conceded to unhindered commerce settlements, this have influenced the U. S work industry and along these lines expanding the exchange deficiency. Worldwide business enterprise begins first as the nearby association, provincial at that point at long last being a global organization. As indicated by the ebb and flow inquire about done by Rugman, Europe and Asia are the locales whose organizations are considered to assume a key job in advancing globalization, corresponding to the cutting edge business point of view (Kotabe and Kothari, 2016). The examination demonstrates that 500 world biggest firms have the vast majority of their deals focusing on their home area. 380 firms on the planet economy are beginning from Nafta; and Asia Pacific . The 118 firms are beginning from the Europe have the normal deals information to be 62.8%, these figures are gotten from the home area deals, while the staying 37.2% are deals outside the locale. Out of 380 firms, Asia has 66 partnerships with a normal of 74.3% home deals date. Absence of levies and guideline are the fundamental caused which prompts business clashes among the country. Footloose, is brought about by one country going into another and performs business exercises with no dedication or the obligations to play out certain business exercises. The applicable specialists can control these footloose by creating and executing on worldwide exchange strategies, for example, presenting of exchange levies, charge rates, and other related measures. Be that as it may, Transnational Corporation chooses to perform explicit business exercises with no duty on account of their distinction regarding capital size and their financial turn of events. Foot-loosing is performed by Transnational Corporations, these TNCs will in general search for less gifted and less work nations. Numerous worldwide ventures just as transnational enterprise see the significance of working in explicit countries, some country may have comparative factor which draws in business exercises for the global business. Numerous country have less expensive assets, low assessment rates and organized commerce contrasted with different countries. Bunches and internationalization isn't bogus in light of the fact that, business exercises in certain nations are free, where one business action can't work without other action (Kotabe and Kothari, 2016) For example banking industry can't work without associations who need to demand for advances and home loans and the other way around is the equivalent. End Taking everything into account, worldwide partnerships works in more than one nation, they play out their exercises in specific nations relying upon various elements. The expansion in global organization doesn't show the decay of national assets, yet rather demonstrating how significant those assets can be use for financial turn of events. Be that as it may, globalization is examined to be the key factor which advanced the transcendence of worldwide partnership. Numerous organizations from Asia and Europe have their deals to be better than expected as a result of the prepared and expanding market. In this way, globalization is has advanced the cutting edge business point of view by expanding the improvement of Transnational companies. Reference As the main work on similar business: M.E.Porter, The Competitive Advantage of Nations (London: Macmillan, 1990) 338.6048 POR Crane, A. what's more, Matten, D., 2016. Business morals: Managing corporate citizenship and supportability in the period of globalization. Oxford University Press. Friedman, T.L., 2006. The world is level: The globalized world in the twenty-first century (pp. 3-543). London: Penguin. Kotabe, M. what's more, Kothari, T., 2016. Developing business sector worldwide organizations transformative ways to building an upper hand from developing markets to created nations. Diary of World Business, 51(5), pp.729-743. Rugman, A.M. what's more, Collinson, S., 2005. Worldwide Enterprises in the New Europe:: Are They Really Global?. Hierarchical Dynamics, 34(3), pp.258-272.

Kite Runner Essay Essay Example for Free

Kite Runner Essay Disloyalty waits like a revile, frequenting its way into cognizance, infusing its toxic substance of gloom and dejection. The activity of Betraying is generally connected with despise. Nonetheless, there are a few special cases. Treachery isn't constantly done by underhanded individuals neither one of the its is essentially a shut cut off to a solid association between people. In khaled Hosseini’s epic The kite Runner, it is shown through character and setting the circumstances where double-crossers were put under difficult circumstances which makes them submit activities that restrict their morals. The decency that exists in betrayers’ hearts in this novel demonstrates how everything can be double-crossed, however loathe could in any case be supplanted by affection. In the novel, the relationship status among people and the circumstances included the selling out were delineated through character. Despite the fact that Baba sold out his companion Ali when he laid down with his better half, the connection among Baba and Ali remained the equivalent due to Baba’s ethical quality and love for his beloved companion. This is demonstrated when Baba said â€Å"He is remaining here with us, where he has a place. This is his home and we are his family. †(Page 95). All through the novel, Baba is depicted as liberal, kind and steadfast individual. Be that as it may, his disloyalty to Ali made a paradoxical expression between his reliability and treachery. In spite of his bad form to Ali, Baba’s ethics kept on being alive and his affection for Ali kept on being loving . As such, the treachery didn't end the solid connection transport that was worked among Ali and Baba consistently. This is on the grounds that the activities submitted by Baba wear not uncover to his evilness or hate to Ali. It was the human want that vanquished his brain and drove him to play out a traitorous activity and an error that he took care of. Baba accepted that there is consistently an opportunity for reclamation and pardoning as long is there is a presence of inner voice. That is the reason he regarded Ali as a feature of the family and demanded to make them live by him perpetually to demonstrate that disloyalty isn't the passing of faithfulness. Additionally, Hassan’s response toward Amir’s treachery shows that companionship and love beat selling out and shields a solid relationship from breakdown. Hassan shows this when he admitted that he took despite the fact that he didn't as Baba asks â€Å"Did you take that cash and Amir’s watch† â€Å"Yes† Hassan answered. (page111). The substantial blow of selling out was when Amir planted a watch and cash in Hassans sleeping cushion to drive him away from his home. This was unforgiving for Hassan yet his blamelessness, dedication and darling made him forestall the eradicating of lovely recollections between two personal companions. That is the reason he chose to concede something that he didn’t complete. This demonstrates the unfaithfulness isn't the finish of a solid relationship since Hassan continued regarding and cherishing Amir after he was double-crossed by him. Besides, Amir’s treachery to Hassan isn't the consequence of Amir’s evilness or abhor for Hassan, yet it is the result of Amir’s felling of liability. Accordingly, the characters and in this novel changed the regular thought that proposes how double-crossing is finished by corrupt individuals which as result leaves the relationship in vanish. The writer accentuates the elements that cause individuals to sell out one another notwithstanding their decency however the setting. The story happens in Afghanistan where Hazaras were oppressed which drove Baba to sell out both of Amir and Hassan by concealing reality with respect to their fellowship. The enduring of Hazaras in Afghanistan is referenced toward the start in the book when the author said â€Å"Pashtuns had controlled Hazaras with unspeakable viciousness. †(page9). This statement demonstrates that anything related with Hazaras was dealt with pitilessly and prohibited in Afghanistan. That is the reason Baba couldn't concede that Hassan the Hazara is his child. On the off chance that he came clean, numerous contentions could have created and over the top individuals in Afghanistan could have hurt Hassan. Baba’s inner voice caused him to recall ordinary that the greatest sin he has done is concealing reality from individuals who reserve the option to realize that fact. This demonstrates Baba’s lie doesn't allude to his evilness, however it shows his awareness of the spot he was encircled in. In Afghanistan, blood around then was all over the place and demise of Hazaras was everyday’s scene. Amir turned out to be extremely disturbed in the wake of finding reality. By the by, the disloyalty brought about by Baba didn't lead Amir to abhor his dad, yet he attempted to look for explanations behind why his father has done that. Besides, the hopeless and most selective disloyalty of Hassan in the novel done by Amir connotes how regardless of whether the selling out wrecks the person in question, the deceiver probably won't be shrewd and the casualty could in any case have no detest for the traitor. This is demonstrated when Amir said â€Å"Everywhere I turned, I saw indications of his dependability, his goddamn enduring loyalty† (page 94). Amir watched Hassan getting assaulted by Assef and never really stop it. This is the greatest treachery in the novel that left both Amir and Hassan in obscurity side. Notwithstanding, the area of the assaulting scene enormously adds to the betrayal’s status. The assaulting scene was set up in a spot where just Asssef and his companions were remaining in the back street at the hour of nightfall while they were mishandling Hassan. The frightening setting of the scene drove Amir to be anxious about the possibility that that on the off chance that he steps in, they would hurt him. In this way, Amir chose to get away and double-cross Hassan by disregarding him confronting the fiasco. Indeed, even idea it was a ghastly double-crossing, this doesn't bring up to Amir’s evilness or loathe . The setting affected Amir’s response. Plus, the selling out was not the finish of their fellowship. Hassan continued being steadfast until the latest possible time, and his dependability was seen wherever in Amir’s eyes significantly after the assaulting occasion. Recovery and fogginess were the keys of the nonstop caring adoration among Amir and Hassan. In rundown, it is clear that the spots occasions happen in could be the purpose behind activities that restrict the individuals’ goodness. Taking everything into account, the novel The kite Runner consolidates Character and setting to demonstrate that for each treachery there is a reason, and each traitor has purposes behind their activities. The author passes on that selling out must not be arranged under aversion. The finish of the novel demonstrates that reclamation could take care of the issue regardless of how entangled it is. Anything might be sold out, anybody might be pardoned, yet not the individuals who come up short on the mental fortitude of their own enormity. Solid relationship and love can take care of any issue. There is no affection without absolution, and there is no pardoning without adoration. Accordingly, unfaithfulness isn't the way toward despise.

The Emergence Of Education For Sustainable Development Education Essay

The Emergence Of Education For Sustainable Development Education Essay Instruction is a fundamental segment of accomplishing supportability. Everywhere throughout the world, social orders are coming to perceive that present advancement patterns are not feasible, and that open mindfulness through instruction and preparing is a key component to moving our inexorably globalized society towards accomplishing maintainability. Training for economical turn of events (ESD), instruction for maintainability (ES), and manageability instruction (SE) are three terms frequently utilized equivalently and conversely in referencing supportability instructive projects. ESD endeavors might be named or depicted in an assortment of ways on account of language as well as social contrasts, however ESD is the phrasing utilized most as often as possible at the worldwide level and inside UN records, and is in this manner the term utilized most all through this archive (UNESCO, 2006). All training must fill some need or probably social orders would not put resources into it. ESD has the ability to make sure about a progressively liveable world for present and people in the future. The idea of ESD is situated to giving individuals information and aptitudes for deep rooted learning they have to assist them with finding successful answers for their natural, financial, and social issues, and the viable utilization of innovation is a basic component to expanding the productivity of training foundations to accomplish these points (UNESCO, 2006). Differing viewpoints help social orders worldwide to decide how individual issues of ESD are managed in singular societies. These points of view have critical impacts in transit individuals live, act, and identify with each other; and connections to outside societies are in a steady condition of progress. ESD should assist us with understanding ourselves just as others better and how nearby manageability issues connect to the more extensive, worldwide ecological view. Everybody is a partner in Education for Sustainable Development; we as a whole offer in the drawn out impacts, both great and awful, of ecological choices (UNESCO, 2006). In spite of the fact that the advantages of condition manageability might be generally very much characterized, the compelling usage of strategies for training programs need to consider explicit nearby, territorial, and national settings (Scoullos, 1998). The act of fitting of ESD preparing projects to singular societies is normal, yet there are explicit basic components that are basic to all supportability preparing programs paying little heed to where they are managed. Key components of ESD programs incorporate the accompanying (Tilbury and Wortman, 2004) : ESD is the essential specialist of change towards economical turn of events. The advancement of expanding the limits of individuals to change their dreams for society into the real world. Instruction encourages the qualities, practices, and ways of life that are required for an economical future. Instruction for reasonable improvement is a procedure of figuring out how to settle on choices that consider the drawn out fate of the value, economy, and biology everything being equal. Training manufactures the limit with respect to such prospects situated reasoning. 1.4.3 Definitions Reasonable advancement is a moving idea to characterize, particularly since the field is consistently developing. The Brundtland Commission is frequently credited with one of the first and most usually refered to portrayals of reasonable turn of events: Sustainable advancement is improvement that addresses the issues of the present without trading off the capacity of people in the future to address their own issues (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). Supportable advancement was one after another for the most part accepted to have three principle components: condition, society, and economy. Notwithstanding, lately, an extra culture column has risen, complimentary to the social column, yet an unmistakable thought. These four columns are firmly interrelated with each other and are thusly not totally separate components. The maintainability worldview challenges the contention that ecological and social issues are an inescapable and worthy outcome of monetary turn of events. The point of view that advocates the idea that human turn of events and the nature of the earth are not good with each other is contrary to the fundamental the standards of manageable turn of events (Pace, 2009). Dr A. Ghafoor Ghaznaw, previous head of UNESCOs Environmental Education Section, characterized natural training at an UNESCO counsel meeting held in Malta in 1989 as, the instructive procedure through which is conferred to its objective gatherings the affectability, mindfulness, information, aptitudes, mentalities, duty for activities and moral duties regarding the normal utilization of the earth and its assets and for the security and improvement of the earth for the present and people in the future (Schembri, Ventura, Calleja, 1989) . 1.4.4 Application Notwithstanding how life attesting the high beliefs of manageability instruction goals might be, and in spite of the huge help and numerous long stretches of exertion behind the work to accomplish ecological maintainability standards, the drawn out record of achievement in accomplishing any critical advancement in these endeavors has been accounted for to be disappointingly not exactly expected by many. Albeit natural instruction has habitually been proposed during various universal meetings as a key component to significant systems expected to advance ecological targets, there has in any case been a huge disparity between the endeavors spent on training and the outcomes that have be accomplished to date (Pace, 2009). Some vibe that the greater part of the thing should have been said about ecological instruction was said in the Tbilisi Conference in 1977, and that any new elaborations are extremely only a rehash of similar standards under another pretense (Pace, 2010). The attributes of and duty towards practical improvement were reconfirmed 10 years after the Tbilisi gathering at the International Congress on Environmental Education and Training in 1987 in Moscow, and again 10 years after the fact at the International Conference on Environment and Society: Education and Public Awareness for Sustainability in 1997 at Thessaloniki. In spite of the fact that the proposals and activity plans proposed by the previously mentioned gatherings were as yet substantial, the inquiry emerged with respect to whether the structure initially created to help ecological instruction activities had rather become an independent of immaterial scholastic activities (Pace, 2010). Some portion of the issue may lie in the way that ecological training, much like the idea of practical turn of events, can never show up at an exact meaning of the idea because of its developing nature (Pace, 2010). The issue of how best to move toward natural instruction has been indistinct. In spite of the fact that it has been settled that learning isn't regularly a direct encounter, a critical number of instructive projects have received straight methodologies. Direct methodologies neglect to recognize the way that people learn in various manners and through various encounters (Pace, 2010). In addition, in spite of the fact that it is generally recogniz ed that corruption of the natural is initially because of the aftereffects of impractical ways of life. Natural training additionally perceives this reality and embraces the idea that the earth it is each resident obligation, and along these lines so as to be compelling, ecological instruction projects should target people with student focused learning. Natural training programs focused on advancing economical advancement require the change of rule speculations into activities. Student focused projects, in light of competency advancement plan students to make solid strides towards finding their own maintainable life designs. Improvement of student focused teaching methods intended to change inactive people into autonomous, basic reasoning deep rooted students focused on making a move is the following stage in the advancement of ecological instruction (Pace, 2010). 1.4.1 Historical Context The starting points of Education for Sustainable Development lie in two particular regions of enthusiasm for the United Nations: instruction and maintainable turn of events. The Declaration of Human Rights expressed in 1948 that, Everyone has the privilege to training. This privilege to instruction was later strengthened in 1989 by the Convention on the Right of the Child (CRC), which proclaimed that essential training ought to be mandatory and accessible allowed to all. In 1990, the Jomtien Declaration on Education for All (EFA) proclaimed, Basic instruction ought to be given to all youngsters, youth, and grown-ups. Universal Development Targets (IDT) identified with quality instruction have been additionally evolved. The Dakar Framework for Action records as one of its six significant instructive objectives as the Improving all parts of the nature of training with the goal that perceived and quantifiable learning results are accomplished, particularly, in education, numeracy and fu ndamental abilities. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) likewise address training. MDG 2 is intended to Achieve general essential instruction. Besides, the UNGA announced the years 2003 to 2012 to be the United Nations Decade of Literacy (UNLD).The significance of instruction for all has unmistakably been more than once stressed by the United Nations more than once through the span of its long history. A few achievements have denoted the advancement of feasible turn of events, including the milestone 1972 United Nations Conference on Human Environment in Stockholm, which prompted the foundation of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and numerous other natural assurance offices. Countries came to understand that the far reaching development of natural debasement required worldwide consideration and joint effort instead of segregated national methodologies and arrangements. Inside 10 years after Stockholm, the world started to rea

Law and Ethics Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

Question: Break down the idea of lewd behavior. Discuss activities that comprise inappropriate behavior in the training condition. How much of the time does it happen? Answer: According to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), a demonstration is said to be a demonstration of inappropriate behavior when there are any lewd gestures which are unwanted for favors that are sexual in nature or some other physical or verbal direct takes puts that are sexual in nature (An Overview of Sexual Harassment, 2016). There are two sorts inappropriate activities that happen in training condition (a) renumeration when the scholarly choice with respect to an understudy is needy upon the accommodation of the understudy to a direct that is sexual in nature; (b) antagonistic condition this happens when there is lead that is unwelcomed of sexual nature which makes an undermining, harsh, scaring condition of learning or is enticing, persevering and serious to the degree that the capacity to profit or partake gets influenced. It is anyway not constantly important, however is progressively predominant, that it is just somebody with power and force which participates in a conduct that is bugging. It tends to be peers or an understudy bugging an administrator also (Kingsbury, 2016). The instance of lewd behavior are the most disputed and generally common in different instructive foundations, and there is a great deal that is being finished by the organizations that such exercises are forestalled (An Overview of Sexual Harassment, 2016). In a milestone instance of Bethel School District v. Fraser, A Minor, et al. 478 U.S. 675 (1986) wherein a selecting discourse by an understudy in a school general get together depicting an applicant with sexual illustrations which were solid. The issue that was raised was whether this discourse was ensured under the First Amendment. The court opined that there might be the assurance by the schools that a few methods of articulations are not suitable, and assents might be material to the discourse. The court held that there should be a harmony between the opportunity that was undoubted with respect to support of disputable and disagreeable issues in study halls and schools against the countervailing enthusiasm of the general public in showing the fitting social conduct and its limits. There was an exceeding of the indecent and profane discourse from the First Amendment right of the understudy (Bethel School District v. Fraser, A Minor, et al., 1986). On the off chance that there is the understudy to understudy inappropriate behavior and there is the disappointment with respect to the school to make fitting move, at that point the school will be held at risk for it. On account of Davis v. Monroe County Board of Education (119 S.Ct. 1661) Sandra Day O. Connor while composing for lion's share opined that under Law Title IX will be subject under government law. For this situation a fifth-grade young lady LaShonda Davis of Macon, GA was grabbed at routinely be her cohort. She disclosed to her educators, however they didn't pay regard to her, gradually her evaluations in class fell, and she got self-destructive. Later the kid admitted and moved region after the guardians had recorded a criminal grumbling against him. They additionally took an out a lewd behavior/sex separation argument against the school too (Davis v. Monroe County Board of Education, 1999). Early endeavors to control a conceivably annoying circumstance are significant. Conduct accepted to be inappropriate behavior ought to be accounted for quickly, particularly on the off chance that it is repeating. The University must think about episodes of lewd behavior so as to stop them and to forestall future occurrences. Managers and others in an administrative job must pay attention to lewd behavior. All individuals from the University people group ought to stay away from conduct or direct toward another part which could be deciphered as lewd behavior. Potential guilty parties ought to comprehend that lewd behavior is a genuine issue that can have genuine outcomes. References An Overview of Sexual Harassment. (2016). Methodologies. Recovered from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08924562.2005.10591145#.U-0pcKOwU08 Bethel School District v. Fraser, A Minor, et al., 478 U.S. 675 (1986). Davis v. Monroe County Board of Education, 119 S.Ct. 1661 (1999). Kingsbury, A. (2016). Toward a more secure grounds: The ivory tower is more secure than any time in recent memory, however more shields may in any case be required. U.S. News World Report, 4852.

High performance liquid chromatography 214 - Free Essay Example

Introduction High performance liquid chromatography 214 is the most widely used of all of the analytical separation techniques. The reasons for the popularity of the method is its sensitivity, ready adaptability to accurate quantitative determinations, suitability for separating non-volatile species or thermally fragile ones, wide spread applicability to substance that are of prime interest to industry, many fields of science and the public. The applications of chromatography have grown explosively in the last fifty years owing not only to the development of several new types of chromatographic techniques but also to the growing need by scientist for better methods for characterizing complex mixtures. General methodology for the development of new HPLC methods 215-228 HPLC method development follows the series of steps summarized below. Information on sample, objective of separation. Need for special HPLC procedure, sample pretreatment etc. Choice of detector and detector settings. Choosing LC method, preliminary run, estimation of best separation conditions. Optimization of separation conditions. Check for problems or requirement for special procedure. a) Recovery of purified material b) Quantitative calibration c) Qualitative method Validate method for routine laboratory use. A good method development strategy should require only as many experimental runs as are necessary to achieve the desired final result. Finally, method development should be simple as possible, yet it should allow the use of sophisticated tools such as computer modeling if these are available. Before the beginning of method development, it is necessary to review what is known about the sample in order to define the goals of separation. The kinds of sample related information that can be important are summarized in Table-7.1. Number of compounds present in the sample Chemical structures of components Molecular weights of compounds PKa values of compounds UV spectra of compounds Concentration range of various compounds in samples of interest Sample solubility The chemical composition of the sample can provide valuable clues for the best choice of initial conditions for an HPLC separation. Objectives of separation The objectives of HPLC separation need to be specified clearly include. The use of HPLC to isolate purified sample components for spectral identification or quantitative analysis. It may be necessary to separate all degradants or impurities from a product for reliable content assay. In quantitative analysis, the required levels of accuracy and precision should be known (a precision of 1 to 2% is usually achievable). Whether a single HPLC procedure is sufficient for raw material or one or more formulations and / or different procedures are desired for the analysis of formulations? When the number of samples for analysis at one time is greater than 10, a run time of less than 20 min. will be oftenly important. Knowledge on the desired HPLC equipment, experience and academic training the operators have. Sample pretreatment and detection Samples for analysis come in various forms such as: Solutions ready for injections. Solutions that require dilution, buffering, addition of an internal standard or other volumetric manipulation. Solids that must first be dissolved or extracted. Samples that require pretreatment to remove interference and/or protect the column or equipment from damage. Most samples for HPLC analysis require weighing and / or volumetric dilution before injection. Best results are often obtained when the composition of the sample solvent is close to that of the mobile phase since this minimizes baseline upset and other problems. Some samples require a partial separation ( pretreatment) prior to HPLC, because of need to remove interference, concentrate sample analytes or eliminate column killer. In many cases the development of an adequate sample pretreatment can be challenging than achieving a good HPLC separation. The detector selected should sense all sample components of interest. Variable-wavelength ultraviolet (UV) detectors normally are the first choice, because of their convenience and applicability for most samples. For this reason information on the UV spectra can be an important aid for method development. When the UV response of the sample is inadequate, other detectors are available (flourescence, electrochemical, PDA etc.) or the sample can be derivatized for enhanced detection. Developing the method for the separation Selecting an HPLC method and initial conditions If HPLC is chosen for the separation, the next step is to classify the sample as regular or special. Regular samples means typical mixtures of small molecules (2000 Da) that can be separated using more or less standardized starting conditions. Exceptions or special samples are usually better separated with a different column and customized conditions as summarized in Table-8.2. Regular samples can be further classified as neutral or ionic. Table-8.3 summarizes the appropriate experimental conditions for the initial reversed phase separation of regular samples. Samples classified as ionic include acids, bases, amphoteric compounds and organic salts. If the sample is neutral, buffers or additives are generally not required in the mobile phase. Acidic or basic samples, usually require the addition of the buffer to the mobile phase. For basic or cationic samples, less acidic reverse phase columns are recommended (Table-8.4) and amine additives for the mobile phase may be beneficial. Usin g these conditions, the first exploratory run is carried out and then improved systematically as discussed below. Table-8.2 Handling of special sample Sample Requirements Inorganic ions Detection is primary problems; use ion chromatography Isomers Some isomers can be separated by reversed-phase HPLC and are then classified as regular samples; better separations of isomers are obtainable using either (1) normal-phase HPLC or (2) reversed-phase separations with cyclodextrin-silica columns. Enantiomers These compounds require chiral conditions for their separations. Biological Several factors make samples or this kind special; molecular conformation, polar functionality and a wide range of hydrophobicity. Macromolecules Big molecules require column packing with large pores( 10-nm diameters); in addition, biological molecules require special conditions as noted above. Table-8.3 Preferred experimental conditions for the initial HPLC separation Separation variable Preferred initial choice Column Dimensions (length, ID) 15 x 0.46 cm Particle size 5 mma Stationary phase C8 or C18 Mobile phase Solvent A and B Buffer-acetonitrile % B 80-100%b Buffer (compound, pH, concentration) 25mM potassium phosphate 2.0pH3.0e Additives (e.g., amine modifiers, ion pair reagents) Do not use initially Flow rate 1.52.0 ml/min Temperature 35-45C Sample Size Volumed 25 mL Weightd 100 mg B : Polar solvent a 3.5 mm particles are an alternative using a 7.5 cm column b For an initial isocratic run; an initial gradient run is preferred. c No buffer required for neutral samples; for pH2.5, pH-stable columns are recommended. d Smaller values required for smaller-volume columns (e.g., 7.50.46-cm, 3.5-mm column). Table-8.4 Physical properties of silica supports for some C 18 columns Column (mL/mL) Pore diameter (nm) Surface area (m2/g) Percent Porosity Hypersil ODS 12 170 57 LiChrosorb C18 10 355 71 Novapak C18 6 N/Aa N/Aa Nucleosil C18 10 350 69` Symmetry C18 10 335 66 Zorbax ODS 6 300 55 Zorbax Rx, SB, XDB 8 180 50 a N/A : Not available On the basis of the initial exploratory run isocratic or gradient elution can be selected as most suitable. If typical reversed-phase conditions provide insufficient sample retention, suggesting the use of either ion pair on normal phase HPLC. Alternatively, the sample may be strongly retained with 100% acetonitrile as mobile phase, suggesting the use of non-aqueous reversed-phase (NARP) chromatography or normal phase HPLC. Some characteristics of reversed-phase and other HPLC methods are summarized below. Table-8.5 Characteristics of primary HPLC methods Method / description/ columns Preferred method Reversed-phase HPLC Uses water organic mobile phase Columns: C18 (ODS), C8, phenyl, trimethylsilyl (TMS), Cyano First choice for most samples, especially neutral or non-ionisable compounds that dissolve in water-organic mixtures Ion-pair HPLC Uses water-organic mobile phase a buffer to control pH and an ion pair reagent. Column : C18, C8, cyano. Acceptable choice for ionic or ionizable compounds, especially bases or cations. Normal phase HPLC Uses mixtures of organic solvents as mobile phase Columns: Cyano, diol, amino and silica. Good second choice when reversed-phase or ion-pair HPLC is ineffective, first choice for lipophilic samples that do not dissolve well in water-organic mixtures, first choice for mixtures of isomers and for preparative-scale HPLC (silica best) Getting started on method development One approach is to use an isocratic mobile phase of some average solvent strength (e.g., 50%) organic solvent. A better alternative is to use a very strong mobile phase with (80-100% B), then reduce %B as necessary. The initial separation with 100%B results in rapid elution of the entire sample, but few groups will separate. Decreasing solvent strength shows the rapid separation of all components with a much longer run time, with a broadening of later bands and reduced detection sensitivity. Improving the separation and repeatable separation Generally the chromatographers will consider several aspects of the separation, as summarized in Table-8.6. Table-8.6 Objectives of separation in HPLC method development Objectivesa Comment Resolution Precise and rugged quantitative analysis requires that Rs be greater than 1.5. Separation time 5-10 min is desirable for routine procedures. Quantitation 2% (1 SD) for assays; 5% for less-demanding analysis; 15% for trace analysis. Pressure 150 bar is desirable, 200 bar is usually essential (new column assumed) Peak height Narrow peaks are desirable for large signal / noise ratios Solvent consumption Minimum mobile-phase use per run is desirable. a Roughly in order of decreasing importance but may vary with analysis requirements. Separation or resolution is a primary requirement in quantitative HPLC. The resolution (Rs) value should be maximum (Rs1.5) favours maximum precision. Resolution usually degrades during the life of the column and can vary from day to day with minor fluctuations in separation conditions. Therefore, values of Rs = 2 or greater should be the goal during method development for simple mixtures. Such resolution will favour both improved assay precision and greater method ruggedness. Some HPLC assays do not require base line separation of the compounds of interest (qualitative analysis). In such cases only enough separation of individual components is required to provide characteristic retention times for peak identification. The time required for a separation (run time = retention time for base band) should be as short as possible and the total time spent on method development is reasonable (runtimes 5 to 10 minutes are desirable). Conditions for the final HPLC method should be selected so that the operating pressure with a new column does not exceed 170 bar (2500 psi) and upper pressure limit below 2000 psi is desirable. There are two reasons for that pressure limit, despite the fact that most HPLC equipment can be operated at much higher pressures. First, during the life of a column, the back pressure may rise by a factor of as much as 2 due to the gradual plugging of the column by particular matter. Second, at lower pressures 170 bars, pumps, sample values and especially auto samples operate much better, seals last longer, columns tend to plug less and system reliability is significantly improved. For these reasons, a target pressure of less than 50% of the maximum capability of the pump is desirable. When dealing with more challenging samples or if the goals of separation are particularly stringent, a large number of method development runs may be required to achieve acceptable separation. Repeatable separation As the experimental runs described above are being carried out, it is important to confirm that each chromatogram can be repeated. When changing conditions (mobile phase, column, and temperature) between method development experiments, enough time must elapse for the column to come into equilibrium with a new mobile phase and temperature. Usually column equilibration is achieved after passage of 10 to 20 column volumes of the new mobile phase through the column. However, this should be confirmed by carrying out a repeat experiment under the same conditions. When constant retention times are observed in two such back-to-back repeat experiments ( 0.5% or better), it can be assumed that the column is equilibrated and the experiments are repeatable. Completing the HPLC method development The final procedure should meet all the objectives that were defined at the beginning of method development. The method should also be robust in routine operation and usable by all laboratories and personnel for which it is intended. Quantitation and method validation One of the strengths of HPLC is that is an excellent quantitative analytical technique. HPLC can be used for the quantitation of the primary or major component of a sample (including pure samples) for mixture of many compounds at intermediate concentrations and for the assessment of trace impurity concentrations in matrix. Method validation, according to the United States Pharmacopoeia (USP), is performed to ensure that an analytical methodology is accurate, specific, reproducible and rugged over the specified range that an analyte will be analysed. Method validation provides an assurance of reliability during normal use and is sometimes described as the process of providing documented evidence that the method does what it is intended to do. According to USP, the method validation involves eight steps as given below. Precision Accuracy Limit of detection Limit of quantitation Specificity Linearity and range Ruggedness Robustness Precision and accuracy: Already discussed in chapter-1. Linearity The linearity of the method is a measure of how well a calibration plot of response v/s concentration approximates a straight line, or how well the data fit to the linear equation. Y = aX + b Where Y is the response, X is the concentration, a is the slope and b is the intercept of a line fit to the data. Ideally, a linear relationship is preferred (b = 0) because it is more precise, easier for calculations and can be defined with fewer standards. Also, UV detector response for a dilute sample is expected to follow Beers law and be linear. Therefore, a linear calibration gives evidence that the system is performing properly throughout the concentration range of interest. Generally in HPLC, if we are using internal standard, then the linearity plot is to be drawn by taking concentration of the analyte on x-axis and the ratio of area under the curve (AUC) of analyte to AUC of internal standard (IS) on y-axis. The resulting plot slope, intercept and correlation coefficient provide the desired information on linearity. A linearity correlation coefficient above 0.999 is acceptable for most methods. Limit of detection (LOD) The limit of detection (LOD) is the smallest concentration that can be detected reliably. The LOD represents the concentration of analyte that would yield a signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio of 3. Limit of quantitation (LOQ) The LOQ is the concentration that can be quantitated reliably with a specified level of accuracy and precision. The LOQ represents the concentration of analyte that would yield a signal-to-noise ratio of 10. LOD and LOQ can be determined by using the following expressions. LOD = 3 X N / B LOQ = 10 X N / B Where N is the noise estimate, is the standard deviation of the peak area ratio of analyte to IS (5 injections) of the drugs. B is the slope of the corresponding calibration curve. The LOD and LOQ values determined during method validation are affected by the separation conditions, columns, reagents and especially instrumentation and data systems. Ruggedness Method ruggedness is defined as the reproducibility of results when the method is performed under actual use conditions. This includes different analysts, laboratories, columns, instruments, sources, chemicals, solvents etc. method ruggedness may not be known when a method is first developed, but insight is obtained during subsequent use of that method. Robustness The concept of robustness of an analytical procedure has been defined by the ICH as a measure of its capacity to remain unaffected by small, but deliberate variations in method parameters. The robustness of a method is the ability to remain unaffected by small changes in parameters such as pH of the mobile phase, temperature, percentage of organic solvent and buffer concentration etc. to determine robustness of the method experimental conditions were purposely altered and chromatographic characteristics were evaluated. To study the pH effect on the retention (K1) of the drug, buffer pH is to be changed by 0.2 units. At certain point, retention will increase at any pH above and below of the pH unit. The effect of temperature on the retention characteristics (K1) of the drug is to be studied by changing the temperature in steps 2C from room temperature to 80C and see the effect of temperature on the resolution and peak shape. Effect of percentage organic strength on retention is to be studied by varying the percentage of organic solvents like acetonitrile, methanol etc. from 0 to 2% while the other mobile phase contents are held constant and observe the K1. At certain point decreases in K1 observed with increase in the level of organic solvent. Effect of buffer concentration should be checked at three concentration levels i.e. 0.025 M, 0.05 M and 0.1 M and observe retention time and resolution. Stability To generate reproducible and reliable results, the samples, standards and reagents used for the HPLC method must be stable for a reasonable time (e.g., One day, one week, one month, depending on the need). For example, the analysis of even a single sample may require 10 or more chromatographic runs to determine system suitability, including standard concentrations to create a working analytical curve and duplicate or triplicate injections of the sample to be assayed. Therefore, a few hours of standard and sample solution stability can be required even for a short (10 min.) separation. When more than one sample is analyzed, automated, over night runs often are performed for better laboratory efficiency. Typically, 24 hours stability is desired for all solutions and reagents that need to be prepared for each analysis. Mobile phases should be chosen to avoid stability problems, especially the use of amine additives or specific solvents. For example, mobile phase containing THF (tetra hydrofuran) are known to be susceptible to oxidation, therefore, the mobile phase should be prepared daily with fresh THF. Some buffered mobile phases cause problems for example, phosphate and acetate provide good media for microbial growth. Sodium oxide (0.1%) is often added to the mobile phase buffer to inhibit such growth, adding more than 5% of organic solvent is also effective. Long term column stability is critical for method ruggedness. Even the best HPLC column will eventually degrade and lose its initial performance, often as a function of the number of samples injected. System suitability System suitability experiments can be defined as tests to ensure that the method can generate results of acceptable accuracy and precision. The requirements for system suitability are usually developed after method development and validation have been completed. The criteria selected will be based on the actual performance of the method as determined during its validation. For example, if sample retention times forms part of the system suitability criteria, their variation (SD) during validation can be determined, system suitability might then require that retention times fall within a 3 SD range during routine performance of the method. The USP (2000) defines parameters that can be used to determine system suitability prior to analysis. These parameters include plate number (N), tailing factor, k and / or a, resolution (Rs) and relative standard deviation (RSD) of peak height or peak area for respective injections. The RSD of peak height or area of five injections of standard solution is normally accepted as one of the standard criteria. For an assay method of a major component, the RSD should typically be less than 1% for these five respective injections. The plate number and / or tailing factor are used if the run contains only one peak. For chromatographic separations with more than one peak, such as an internal standard assay or an impurity method, expected to contain many peaks, some measure of separations such as Rs is recommended. Reproducibility of tR or k value for a specific compound also defines system performance. The column performance can be defined in terms of column plate number N is defined by N = 5.54 (tR / W)2 Where tR is the retention time of the peak and W is the width of the peak at half peak height. The resolution of two adjacent peaks can be calculated by using the formula Rs = 1.18 (t2-t1) / W0.5.1 +W0.5.2 Where t1 and t2 are retention times of the adjacent peaks and W0.5.1 and W0.5.2 are the width of the peaks at half height. Rs = 2.0 or greater is a desirable target for method development. The retention factor k is given by the equation. k = (tR t0) / t0 where tR is the band retention time and t0 is the column dead time. The peak symmetry can be represented in terms of peak asymmetry factor and peak tailing factor, which can be calculated by using the following formula. Peak asymmetry factor = B /A Where B is the distance at 50% peak height between leading edge to the perpendicular drawn from the peak maxima and A is the width of the peak at half height. According to USP (2000) peak tailing factor can be calculated by using the formula T = W0.05 / 2f Where W0.05 is the width of the peak at 5% height and f is the distance from the peak maximum to the leading edge of the peak, the distance being measured at a point 50% of the peak height from the base line.

Reflection of the art - 275 Words

Reflection of Art (Essay Sample) Content: Name:Course:Instructor:Date:Reflection of the artMy first impressions after viewing the picture were a woman hovering over a human skeleton. She seems to be mourning the loss of a loved one, possibly a lover. Her face exudes sorrow but also shows relief perhaps for finding the remains of her cherished lover. The human skull caught my attention immediately I saw the picture. Rather than exude horror and grief, the human skull stares as if it is grinning back to the hovering woman. It protracts a scene such as consolation and comfort to the living woman. Dead human bodies are essentially regarded as horrendous and stupefying. However, this picture paints a relaxed and poised scene.I was surprised to see the gothic human skeleton staring at the humbled and at ease woman. Indeed, I was ghastly caught unawares by the serenity and peace in the picture. Although the lying person is long dead and decayed, the woman hovering over it is at peace with the situation. Nonetheless, she is distraught, mournful and sorrowful. In addition, she appears to have accepted what transpired an indication of relief. I really liked and marveled at the conspicuous display of several emotions efficaciously. This picture managed to capture the mixed emotions evidently prevalent in the scene.In spite of all, I was flustered and wav...